What is rhetoric?
As you will learn while navigating this guide, it is difficult to give a simple, concrete definition of what rhetoric is. Since its origination the definition has been constantly evolving, and expanded upon. Another factor to consider is that the ancient and modern rhetors who have been most influential in defining it have not always seen eye-to-eye. Thus, there are many paths you can take in determining what rhetoric means to you, and how it can be applied in contemporary situations. Regardless, it can generally be agreed upon in Western culture that rhetoric is the art of communicating skillfully, with the intent to persuade or influence an audience. It is a, "form of mental or emotional energy imparted to a communication to affect a situation in the interest of the speaker" (Kennedy 7). Depending on what one deems rhetoric to be, it can apply to communicative methods such as speech, written work and analyses, visuals, and social media, etc.
When did it originate? How was it defined?
Rhetoric came into existence with the advancement of speech, and communication in the classical societies of Ancient Greece and Rome. The need for rhetoric grew in tandem with the development of democratic systems of government. As mankind evolved, so too did man's need for an effective means of communication; the common man was expected to vouch for his needs, and even to defend himself in a court room. Moreover, in those societies from which our modern government systems evolved, it was necessary for one's well-being to establish how to convey a message to a given audience.
Specifically, rhetoric is said to have orginated in the 5th century B.C. with Corax of Syracuse (Foss, Foss, Trapp 9). A revolution on the island of Syracuse prompted the formal study of persuasive language. The inhabitants needed to use rhetoric in order to negotiate the foundation of the new democracy that was formed. Corax wrote a treatise to aid in that mission, known as, "The Art of Rhetoric." In the treatise he contributed the first formal treatment of the organization of speeches. Corax and his pupil Tisias helped to establish the idea that, "eloquence was an art that could be taught" (Foss, Foss, Trapp 12).
From this idea, the sophistic movement began; the movement sought to study the perspective from which to approach the world. One example of rhetoric from the sophistic movement is Gorgias' Encomium of Helen. In this text he attempts to persuade the audience to view Helen of Troy in a more favorable light. In Encomium, and his works at large, he emphasizes the poetic dimensions of language.
Not everyone agreed with Gorgias and the sophists, however. Plato was an Ancient Greek Philosopher (427-347 B.C.) who was morally opposed to rhetoric, and paradoxically created the foundations for its study and practice. He foremost defined rhetoric as the, "art of influencing the soul through words" (Plato 48). He deemed that it was a persuasive tactic used to convey logic and reason from one man to another, or to a group of peoples. He felt that rhetoric could skew the ultimate truth; the nature of rhetoric was inherently impure, and could distract from truths as established by philosophy. Plato's use of rhetoric usually involved a discussion regarding the definition of a term or the application of justice, which could either reaffirm or question the essential truth. As such, rhetoric as defined by Plato was useful, and powerful, but not necessarily noble.
In Plato's work, The Republic, he includes conversations with several of his pupils, and fellow rhetors such as Socrates. Socrates asks, "Is not rhetoric, taken generally, a universal art of enchanting the mind by arguments?" This view of rhetoric holds true throughout The Republic, and can be seen when Plato suggests that it is the orator's responsibility to not mislead an audience with clever speaking.
Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was then responsible for systematizing rhetoric as the foundation of speech communication.
Not everyone agreed with Gorgias and the sophists, however. Plato was an Ancient Greek Philosopher (427-347 B.C.) who was morally opposed to rhetoric, and paradoxically created the foundations for its study and practice. He foremost defined rhetoric as the, "art of influencing the soul through words" (Plato 48). He deemed that it was a persuasive tactic used to convey logic and reason from one man to another, or to a group of peoples. He felt that rhetoric could skew the ultimate truth; the nature of rhetoric was inherently impure, and could distract from truths as established by philosophy. Plato's use of rhetoric usually involved a discussion regarding the definition of a term or the application of justice, which could either reaffirm or question the essential truth. As such, rhetoric as defined by Plato was useful, and powerful, but not necessarily noble.
In Plato's work, The Republic, he includes conversations with several of his pupils, and fellow rhetors such as Socrates. Socrates asks, "Is not rhetoric, taken generally, a universal art of enchanting the mind by arguments?" This view of rhetoric holds true throughout The Republic, and can be seen when Plato suggests that it is the orator's responsibility to not mislead an audience with clever speaking.
Plato's student Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was then responsible for systematizing rhetoric as the foundation of speech communication.
Tell me more about Aristotle & other rhetors!
Aristotle was, "a scientist trained in classification" (Foss, Foss, Trapp 14). In his work On Rhetoric he categorized and defined the various facets of rhetoric, considering it to be, "the faculty of discovering...the available means of persuasion" (Aristotle 37). Rather than writing a moral treatise on rhetoric, as Plato did, Aristotle's treatment of the subject is pragmatic, and objective; it set the parameters for the study of rhetoric for the centuries following. More or less, we owe our modern conceptualizations of rhetoric to Aristotle, for he solidified ideas and concepts that had previously been intangible or unexplored.
The list of rhetors who have followed in Aristotle's footsteps is nearly infinite. However, there are a few notable rhetors who continued to progress the field of rhetoric, and persuasion. Specifically, the Roman rhetors: Cicero (106-43 B.C.), and Quintilian (35-95 A.D.). Their definitions of rhetoric stemmed from the more pragmatic aspects of Aristotle's work. Consequently, rhetoric has evolved to be considered a practical art form, rather than an abstract moral subject to be examined. Cicero is famed particularly for having elaborated on the elements of style in his treatise De Oratore, while Quintilian instructed on the proper education of an orator, and the practice of rhetoric in The Orator's Education.
The list of rhetors who have followed in Aristotle's footsteps is nearly infinite. However, there are a few notable rhetors who continued to progress the field of rhetoric, and persuasion. Specifically, the Roman rhetors: Cicero (106-43 B.C.), and Quintilian (35-95 A.D.). Their definitions of rhetoric stemmed from the more pragmatic aspects of Aristotle's work. Consequently, rhetoric has evolved to be considered a practical art form, rather than an abstract moral subject to be examined. Cicero is famed particularly for having elaborated on the elements of style in his treatise De Oratore, while Quintilian instructed on the proper education of an orator, and the practice of rhetoric in The Orator's Education.
The role of rhetoric shifted dramatically after the fall of Rome. With the decline of democracy, rhetoric divorced from civic affairs and became increasingly concerned with style and delivery rather than content (Foss, Foss, Trapp 15). During the religious revival following the classical period, it was often viewed as a pagan art, though St. Augustine helped to keep the art of rhetoric alive. Then, through The Middle Ages and The Renaissance there was little evolution of rhetoric. Rather, the study of classical rhetoric was valued, and continued. The only significant change to rhetoric was its re-categorization by French philosopher Petrus Ramus (1515-1572); he declared that rhetoric was an art focused exclusively on style and delivery, rather than logic and content.
The onset of the Modern Era of rhetoric began (roughly) in the 1600s. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a rhetorician who was concerned with the scholarly progress of the field of rhetoric. He felt that the role of rhetoric was to apply reason to imagination for the better movement of will (Foss, Foss, Trapp 17). Since Bacon's influence, rhetoric has focused increasingly on cognitive processes and inclinations. There has been more attention devoted to epistemology, or the nature of knowledge, resulting in more audience-centered rhetoric.
Another rhetorical movement that evolved from Bacon's influence was the belletristic movement, which valued the aesthetic qualities of language. Since belletrism, rhetoric has become more concerned with the style of language, and the sensory effects of rhetoric. Contemporary literary and rhetorical criticisms value the coupling of sensory pleasure with reason to craft a more powerful message. Additionally, the elocution, or delivery of rhetoric, has taken the spotlight in modern rhetorical applications. Rhetors continue to analyze and consider the mechanics of delivery, and their effects on the faculties of the mind.
Generally speaking, the conceptualization of rhetoric has become increasingly eclectic with contemporary study, and applications. Scholars have revitalized rhetoric as a broad liberal art, "that includes the canons of invention, organization, and elocution, as well as delivery" (Foss, Foss, Trapp 19). Rhetors consider the treatises dating back to classical Greece and Rome, as well as contemporary fields of study such as psychology, sociology, literary criticism, philosophy, and English (Foss, Foss, Trapp 19).
The onset of the Modern Era of rhetoric began (roughly) in the 1600s. Francis Bacon (1561-1626) was a rhetorician who was concerned with the scholarly progress of the field of rhetoric. He felt that the role of rhetoric was to apply reason to imagination for the better movement of will (Foss, Foss, Trapp 17). Since Bacon's influence, rhetoric has focused increasingly on cognitive processes and inclinations. There has been more attention devoted to epistemology, or the nature of knowledge, resulting in more audience-centered rhetoric.
Another rhetorical movement that evolved from Bacon's influence was the belletristic movement, which valued the aesthetic qualities of language. Since belletrism, rhetoric has become more concerned with the style of language, and the sensory effects of rhetoric. Contemporary literary and rhetorical criticisms value the coupling of sensory pleasure with reason to craft a more powerful message. Additionally, the elocution, or delivery of rhetoric, has taken the spotlight in modern rhetorical applications. Rhetors continue to analyze and consider the mechanics of delivery, and their effects on the faculties of the mind.
Generally speaking, the conceptualization of rhetoric has become increasingly eclectic with contemporary study, and applications. Scholars have revitalized rhetoric as a broad liberal art, "that includes the canons of invention, organization, and elocution, as well as delivery" (Foss, Foss, Trapp 19). Rhetors consider the treatises dating back to classical Greece and Rome, as well as contemporary fields of study such as psychology, sociology, literary criticism, philosophy, and English (Foss, Foss, Trapp 19).
Key terms and points to keep in mind:
Thanks to Aristotle, Cicero, Quintilian, and the subsequent rhetors, there are several key terms, and concepts that one should be familiar with in the study of rhetoric. Here are some of the most important ones to know in order to use rhetoric effectively, as well as to understand the ways in which it can be used.
The three species of rhetoric: Deliberative, Judicial, Epideictic
The rhetorical canons: Inventio, Elocution, Disposition, Memoria, Action
The three species of rhetoric: Deliberative, Judicial, Epideictic
- The three species of rhetoric are epideictic, judicial, and deliberative. It is important to know these species so that one may decipher what types of rhetoric are being used, or conversely to recognize what type should be used to support one's claim. Epideictic is either for praising or blaming, and it is predominantly about the present. It discusses the qualities someone as at a specific point in time, but it can also discuss the past and future. Judicial is for accusation or defense, and it is used when speaking in a court; it is important to consider the past because it discusses what someone has done, and precedence for justice and injustice. Deliberative is focused on the future as it is attempting to persuade someone of a particular point or issue. It is intended to help someone see the right and harmful courses they may take, and to give them advice.
- The three rhetorical appeals are ethos, logos, and pathos. Ethos is an ethical appeal based on the character, credibility, or reliability of the rhetorician. Logos is a logical appeal that relies on truths, logic, or reason. Pathos is an appeal to emotion that appeals to an audience’s needs, values, and emotional sensibilities.
The rhetorical canons: Inventio, Elocution, Disposition, Memoria, Action
- The five rhetorical appeals are inventio, elocutio, dispositio, memoria, and action. Inventio, or invention, is the process of developing and refining one’s arguments. Elocutio, or style, is how one presents one’s arguments using figures of speech and various rhetorical techniques. Dispositio, or arrangement, is the process of arranging one’s arguments for effective oration, and maximum impact on the audience. Memoria, or memory, is the process of memorizing one’s speech so as to be able to deliver it effectively without notes. This canon could also be applied to memorizing facts and citations for impromptu speech giving. Actio, or delivery, is practicing the delivery of one’s speech, including hand gestures, volume, and voice inflection.
Kairos: the opportune moment
Audience: who are you addressing?
The Dialectic Method
Epistemology: a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge.
Belletristic rhetoric: focuses primarily on the aesthetics of rhetoric, rather than its informative value.
Elocution: the formal study of speaking in pronunciation, grammar, style, and tone.
- In rhetoric, it is important to consider the context of the situation. Kairos refers to the appropriateness of speaking, and whether or not on should express themselves. Consider where you are, what you are doing, and who may or may not want to hear your opinion before you share it!
Audience: who are you addressing?
- Always be mindful of who are attempting to persuade, or communicate with, and how they may be affected by what you have to say. A true rhetor always takes this into consideration, and tailors his or her arguments and methods to whom they are speaking.
The Dialectic Method
- The dialectic method is a discourse between two or more individuals with differing opinions on a subject, who subsequently wish to use reasoned arguments to establish the truth of the matter. It does not necessarily require the parties involved to have an emotional stake in the matter, or to be attempting to persuade the other as in debate and rhetoric. Rather, the parties involved are discussing and attempting to establish what is true. Note: Plato most often used the dialectic method!
Epistemology: a branch of philosophy concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge.
- It questions what knowledge is, how it can be acquired, and the ways in which it can be applied.
Belletristic rhetoric: focuses primarily on the aesthetics of rhetoric, rather than its informative value.
- Highly refined, sensory effects of language
Elocution: the formal study of speaking in pronunciation, grammar, style, and tone.
- Focuses on the efficacy of speech, and rhetoric
- May also refer to elocution (n): the skill of clear and expressive speech, especially of distinct pronunciation and articulation.